Novarupta bibliography: all known references that deal with Novarupta.

"Volcanic eruption plumes and subsequent drifting ash clouds from North Pacific volcanoes have caused delays in flight operations nationwide and substantial damage to aircraft and equipment. Volcanic ash also has caused difficulties in Alaskan communities, ranging from property damage to health hazards. This operating plan provides an overview of multiple agency integrated operations in response to the threat of volcanic ash affecting Alaska, and an agency-by-agency description of roles and responsibilities in such events. A cohesive, well coordinated response will result in the flow of timely and consistent information to those at risk."

Madden, John, Murray, T.L., Carle, W.J., Cirillo, M.A., Furgione, L.K., Trimpert, M.T., and Hartig, Larry (signatories), 2008, Alaska interagency operating plan for volcanic ash episodes, 52 p.
full-text PDF : 907 KB

Since 1988, the Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) has been monitoring volcanic activity across the state, conducting scientific research on volcanic processes, producing volcano-hazard assessments, and informing both the public and emergency managers of volcanic unrest. Below are some examples of the activity at Alaska's volcanoes that have held the attention of AVO staff.

Schaefer, J.R., and Nye, Chris, 2008, The Alaska Volcano Observatory - 20 years of volcano research, monitoring, and eruption response: Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys, Alaska GeoSurvey News, NL 2008-001, v. 11, n. 1, p. 1-9, available at http://wwwdggs.dnr.state.ak.us/pubs/pubs?reqtype=citation&ID=16061 .
ADGGS website with link to PDF
full-text PDF on AVO's server : 5.68 MB

Fish and fishing communities are iconic symbols of Alaska. Volcanoes, earthquakes, and tsunamis also stand out as processes that define or shape the Alaska landscape. Alaska has numerous fishing ports that regularly rank in the top 10 ports for commercial landings by weight and value in the United States.

Zimmerman, C.E., Neal, C.A., and Haeussler, P.J., 2008, Natural hazards, fish habitat, and fishing communities in Alaska: American Fisheries Society Symposium, v. 64, p. 375-388.
full-text PDF : 1.83 MB

The three-dimensional P-wave velocity structure beneath the Katmai group of volcanoes is determined by inversion of more than 10,000 rays from over 1000 earthquakes recorded on a local 18 station short-period network between September 1996 and May 2001. The inversion is well constrained from sea level to about 6 km below sea level and encompasses all of the Katmai volcanoes; Martin, Mageik, Trident, Griggs, Novarupta, Snowy, and Katmai caldera. The inversion reduced the average RMS travel-time error from 0.22 s for locations from the standard one-dimensional model to 0.13 s for the best three-dimensional model. The final model, from the 6th inversion step, reveals a prominent low velocity zone (3.6-5.0 km/s) centered at Katmai Pass and extending from Mageik to Trident volcanoes.

Jolly, A.D., Moran, S.C., McNutt, S.R., and Stone, D.B., 2007, Three-dimensional P-wave velocity structure derived from local earthquakes at the Katmai group of volcanoes, Alaska: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 159, p. 326-342, doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2006.06.022.

At least 15 explosive eruptions from the Katmai cluster of volcanoes and another nine from other volcanoes on the Alaska Peninsula are preserved as tephra layers in syn- and post-glacial (Last Glacial Maximum) loess and soil sections in Katmai National Park, AK. About 400 tephra samples from 150 measured sections have been collected between Kaguyak volcano and Mount Martin and from Shelikof Strait to Bristol Bay (8,500 km2). Five tephra layers are distinctive and widespread enough to be used as marker horizons in the Valley of Ten thousand Smokes area, and 140 radiocarbon dates on enclosing soils have established a time framework for entire soil-tephra sections to 10 ka; the white rhyolitic ash from the 1912 plinian eruption of Novarupta caps almost all sections. Stratigraphy, distribution and tephra characteristics have been combined with microprobe analyses of glass and FeTi oxide minerals to correlate ash layers with their source vents.

Fierstein, Judy, 2007, Explosive eruptive record in the Katmai region, Alaska Peninsula: an overview: Bulletin of Volcanology, v. 69, n. 5, p. 469-509, doi:10.1007/s00445-006-0097-y.

Tephra-fall deposits from Cook Inlet volcanoes were detected in sediment cores from Tustumena and Paradox Lakes, Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, using magnetic susceptibility and petrography. The ages of tephra layers were estimated using 21 14C ages on macrofossils. Tephras layers are typically fine, gray ash, 1-5 mm thick, and composed of varying proportions of glass shards, pumice, and glass-coated phenocrysts. Of the two lakes, Paradox Lake contained a higher frequency of tephra (0.8 tephra/100 yr; 109 over the 13,200-yr record). The unusually large number of tephra in this lake relative to others previously studied in the area is attributed to the lake's physiography, sedimentology, and limnology. The frequency of ash fall was not constant through the Holocene.

de Fontaine, C.S., Kaufman, D.S., Anderson, R.S., Werner, Al, Waythomas, C.F., and Brown, T.A., 2007, Late Quaternary distal tephra-fall deposits in lacustrine sediments, Kenai Peninsula, Alaska: Quaternary Research, v. 68, p. 64-78, doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2007.03.006.

A methodology to systematically rank volcanic threat was developed as the basis for prioritizing volcanoes for long-term hazards evaluations, monitoring, and mitigation activities.

Ewert, John, 2007, System for ranking relative threats of U.S. volcanoes: Natural Hazards Review, v. 8, n. 4, p. 112-124.

Plinian/ignimbrite activity stopped briefly and abruptly 16 and 45 h after commencement of the 1912 Novarupta eruption defining three episodes of explosive volcanism before finally giving way after 60 h to effusion of lava domes. We focus here on the processes leading to the termination of the second and third of these three episodes. Early erupted pumice from both episodes show a very similar range in bulk vesicularity, but the modal values markedly decrease and the vesicularity range widens toward the end of Episode III.

Adams, N.K., Houghton, B.F., and Hildreth, Wes, 2006, Abrupt transitions during sustained explosive eruptions: examples from the 1912 eruption of Novarupta, Alaska: Bulletin of Volcanology, v. 69, p. 189-206, doi: 10.1007/s00445-006-0067-4.
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Recently discovered Lethe tephra has been proposed as a latest Pleistocene marker bed in Bristol Bay lowland NE to the Cook Inlet region, Alaska, on the basis of correlations involving a single "Lethe average" glass composition. Type deposits in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, however, are chemically heterogeneous-individual lapilli as well as aggregate ash deposits have glass compositions that range from the average mode to much higher SiO2 and K2O. Moreover, a lake-sediment core from the Cook Inlet region contains one ash deposit similar to "Lethe average" and other, closely underlying deposits that resemble a mixture of the average mode and high-Si high-K mode of proximal deposits.

Riehle, J.R., Ager, T.A., Reger, R.D., Pinney, D.S., and Kaufman, D.S., 2006, Stratigraphic and compositional complexities of the late Quaternary Lethe tephra in south-central Alaska: Quaternary International, in press, 19 p.

The shift from explosive to effusive silicic volcanism seen in many historical eruptions reflects a change in the style of degassing of erupted magma. This paper focuses on such a transition during the largest eruption of the twentieth century, the 1912 eruption of Novarupta. The transition is recorded in a dacite block bed, which covers an elliptical area of 4 km2 around the vent. Approximately 700 studied blocks fall into four main lithologic categories: (1) pumiceous, (2) dense, (3) fl ow-banded dacites, and (4) welded breccias.

Adams, N.K., Houghton, B.F., Fagents, S.A., and Hildreth, Wes, 2006, The transition from explosive to effusive eruptive regime; the example of the 1912 Novarupta eruption, Alaska: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 118, n. 5-6, p. 620-634, doi:10.1130/B25768.1.

High-latitude volcanic eruptions can significantly impact the climate system.

Oman, L.D., 2006, Modeling the volcanic aerosol distribution and climatic response of high-latitude volcanic eruptions: Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey at New Brunswick Ph.D. dissertation, 99 p.

"The June 1912 eruption of Novarupta filled nearby glacial valleys on the Alaska Peninsula with ash-flow tuff (ignimbrite), and post-eruption observations of thousands of steaming fumaroles led to the name dValley of Ten Thousand SmokesT (VTTS). By the late 1980s most fumarolic activity had ceased, but the discovery of thermal springs in mid-valley in 1987 suggested continued cooling of the ash-flow sheet. Data collected at the mid-valley springs between 1987 and 2001 show a statistically significant correlation between maximum observed chloride (Cl) concentration and temperature. These data also show a statistically significant decline in the maximum Cl concentration. The observed variation in stream chemistry across the sheet strongly implies that most solutes, including Cl, originate within the area of the VTTS occupied by the 1912 deposits."

Hogeweg, Noor, Keith, T.E.C., Colvard, E.M., and Ingebritsen, S.E., 2005, Ongoing hydrothermal heat loss from the 1912 ash-flow sheet, Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, Alaska: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 143, p. 279-291.

"NVEWS - a National Volcano Early Warning System - is being formulated by the Consortium of U.S. Volcano Observatories (CUSVO) to establish a proactive, fully integrated, national-scale monitoring effort that ensures the most threatening volcanoes in the United States are properly monitored in advance of the onset of unrest and at levels commensurate with the threats posed. Volcanic threat is the combination of hazards (the destructive natural phenomena produced by a volcano) and exposure (people and property at risk from the hazards)."

Ewert, J.W., Guffanti, Marianne, and Murray, T.L., 2005, An assessment of volcanic threat and monitoring capabilities in the United States: framework for a National Volcano Early Warning System NVEWS: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report OF 2005-1164, 62 p.
full-text PDF : 2.90 MB

The primary objectives of the seismic program are the real-time seismic monitoring of active, potentially hazardous, Alaskan volcanoes and the investigation of seismic processes associated with active volcanism. This catalog presents the calculated earthquake hypocenter and phase arrival data, and changes in the seismic monitoring program for the period January 1 through December 31, 2004.

Dixon, J.P., Stihler, S.D., Power, J.A., Tytgat, Guy, Estes, Steve, Prejean, Stephanie, Sanchez, J.J., Sanches, Rebecca, McNutt, S.R., and Paskievitch, John, 2005, Catalog of earthquake hypocenters at Alaskan volcanoes: January 1 through December 31, 2004: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2005-1312, 74 p., available online at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2005/1312/.
website with links to PDF and data files

Strong volcanic eruptions can inject large amounts of SO2 into the lower stratosphere, which over time, are converted into sulfate aerosols and have the potential to impact climate. Alerosols from tropical volcanic eruptions like the 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption spread over the entire globe, whereas high-latitude eruptions typically have aerosols which remain in the hemisphere in which they were injected.

Oman, Luke, Robock, Alan, Stenchikov, Georgiy, Schmidt, Gavin A., and Ruedy, Reto, 2005, Climatic response to high-latitude volcanic eruptions: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 110, no. D13, 13 p.

"The Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO), a cooperative program of the U.S. Geological Survey, the Geophysical Institute of the University of Alaska Fairbanks, and the Alaska Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys, has maintained seismic monitoring networks at historically active volcanoes in Alaska since 1988 (Power and others, 1993; Jolly and others, 1996; Jolly and others, 2001; Dixon and others, 2002; Dixon and others, 2003). The primary objectives of this program are the near real time seismic monitoring of active, potentially hazardous, Alaskan volcanoes and the investigation of seismic processes associated with active volcanism. This catalog presents the calculated earthquake hypocenter and phase arrival data, and changes in the seismic monitoring program for the period January 1 through December 31, 2003."

Dixon, J. P., Stihler, S. D., Power, J. A., Tytgat, Guy, Moran, S. C., Sanchez, J. J., McNutt, S. R., Estes, Steve, and Paskievitch, John, 2004, Catalog of earthquake hypocenters at Alaskan volcanoes: January 1 through December 31, 2003: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report OF 2004-1234, 69 p.
website with links to PDF and data tar file
full-text PDF : 12.3 MB

There is a long-standing bond between Katmai's volcanoes and resident people. In the 10,000 years since the close of the last Ice Age, there have been at least seven explosive eruptions and many minor eruptions within the Katmai volcanic cluster. These events are evident in the archeological sites throughout the region, where tephras are layered between prehistoric house floors and camp surfaces. Witnessing the explosion of a mountain within very close proximity was not an unknown experience for people living on the Alaska Peninsula when Novarupta volcano unleashed one of the five largest eruptions in recorded history.

Schaaf, J. M., 2004, Witness, firsthand accounts of the largest volcanic eruption in the twentieth century: Anchorage, AK, National Park Service, Lake Clark-Katmai Studies Center, unpaged.
PDF on NPS site : 3.51 MB

"Recent explosive eruptions at some of Alaska's 41 historically active volcanoes have significantly affected air traffic over the North Pacific, as well as Alaska's oil, power, and fishing industries and local communities. Since its founding in the late 1980s, the Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) has installed new monitoring networks and used satellite data to track activity at Alaska's volcanoes, providing timely warnings and monitoring of frequent eruptions to the aviation industry and the general public. To minimize impacts from future eruptions, scientists at AVO continue to assess volcano hazards and to expand monitoring networks."

Brantley, S. R., McGimsey, R. G., and Neal, C. A., 2004, The Alaska Volcano Observatory - Expanded monitoring of volcanoes yields results: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet FS 2004-3084, 2 p.
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"Proximal (<3 km) deposits from episodes II and III of the 60-h-long Novarupta 1912 eruption exhibit a very complex stratigraphy, the result of at least four transport regimes and diverse depositional mechanisms. They contrast with the relatively simple stratigraphy (and inferred emplacement mechanisms) for the previously documented, better known, medial-distal fall deposits and the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes ignimbrite. The proximal products include alternations and mixtures of both locally and regionally dispersed fall ejecta, and numerous thin complex deposits of pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) with no regional analogs."

Houghton, B. F., Wilson, C. J. N., Fierstein, J., and Hildreth, W., 2004, Complex proximal deposition during the Plinian eruptions of 1912 at Novarupta, Alaska: Bulletin of Volcanology, v. 66, n. 2, p. 95-113.

Unknown, 2004, 90-year-old Katmai ash dusts Kodiak: Alaska, v. 70, n. 1, p. 15.

"Between October 12, 1989 and December 31, 2002, the Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) located 162 deep long-period (DLP) events beneath 11 volcanic centers in the Aleutian arc. These events generally occur at mid- to lower-crustal depths (10-45 km) and are characterized by emergent phases, extended codas, and a strong spectral peak between 1.0 and 3.0 Hz. Observed wave velocities and particle motions indicate that the dominant phases are P- and S-waves. DLP epicenters often extend over broad areas (5-20 km) surrounding the active volcanoes. The average reduced displacement of Aleutian DLPs is 26.5 cm2 and the largest event has a reduced displacement of 589 cm2 (or ML 2.5). Aleutian DLP events occur both as solitary events and as sequences of events with several occurring over a period of 1-30 min."

Power, J.A, Stihler, S.D., White, R.A., and Moran, S.C., 2004, Observations of deep long-period (DLP) seismic events beneath Aleutian Arc volcanoes: 1989-2002: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 138, p. 243-266.

Northwest winds were strong enough to continuously resuspend relic volcanic ash from the Katmai volcano cluster and the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes on 20-21 September 2003. The ash cloud reached over 1600 m and extended over 230 km into the Gulf of Alaska. Several factors influenced the resuspension of the ash: 1) the atmosphere and land surface were very dry prior to the event, further enabling the resuspension and subsequent atmospheric transport of the relic volcanic ash; 2) the production of winds strong enough to entrain and lift the ash over 1600 m into the atmosphere; 3) the complex terrain with numerous mountains interspersed with valleys, channels, and gaps; 4) the superadiabatic lapse rate for the troposphere below 850 mb; and 5) the presence of a strong subsidence inversion around 1400-1600 m.

Hadley, David, Hufford, G.L., and Simpson, J.J., 2004, Resuspension of relic volcanic ash and dust from Katmai: Still an aviation hazard: Weather and Forecasting, v. 19, n. 5, p. 829-840.

"The Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO), a cooperative program of the U.S. Geological Survey, the Geophysical Institute of the University of Alaska Fairbanks, and the Alaska Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys, has maintained seismic monitoring networks at historically active volcanoes in Alaska since 1988 (Power and others, 1993; Jolly and others, 1996; Jolly and others, 2001; Dixon and others, 2002). The primary objectives of this program are the seismic monitoring of active, potentially hazardous, Alaskan volcanoes and the investigation of seismic processes associated with active volcanism. This catalog presents the basic seismic data and changes in the seismic monitoring program for the period January 1, 2002 through December 31, 2002. Appendix G contains a list of publications pertaining to seismicity of Alaskan volcanoes based on these and previously recorded data."

Dixon, J. P., Stihler, S. D., Power, J. A., Tytgat, Guy, Moran, S. C., Sanchez, John, Estes, Steve, McNutt, S. R., and Paskievitch, John, 2003, Catalog of earthquake hypocenters at Alaskan volcanoes: January 1 through December 31, 2002: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report OF 03-0267, 58 p.
website with links to PDFs, data tar file
full-text PDF : 7.3 MB

Hildreth, Wes, and Fierstein, Judy, 2003, Geologic map of the Katmai volcanic cluster, Katmai National Park, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigation Series Map I 2778, unpaged, 1 sheet, scale 1:63,360.
website
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"Most procedures for routinely locating earthquake hypocenters within a local network are constrained to using laterally homogeneous velocity models to represent the Earth&#146;s crustal velocity structure. As a result, earthquake location errors may arise due to actual lateral variations in the Earth&#146;s velocity structure. Station corrections can be used to compensate for heterogeneous velocity structure near individual stations (Douglas, 1967; Pujol, 1988). The HYPOELLIPSE program (Lahr, 1999) used by the Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) to locate earthquakes in Cook Inlet and the Aleutian Islands is a robust and efficient program that uses one-dimensional velocity models to determine hypocenters of local and regional earthquakes. This program does have the capability of utilizing station corrections within it's earthquake location proceedure. The velocity structures of Cook Inlet and Aleutian volcanoes very likely contain laterally varying heterogeneities. For this reason, the accuracy of earthquake locations in these areas will benefit from the determination and addition of station corrections."

Searcy, C. K., 2003, Station corrections for the Katmai Region Seismic Network: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report OF 03-0403, 14 p.
webpage with link to PDF
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"The Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO), a cooperative program of the U.S. Geological Survey, the Geophysical Institute of the University of Alaska Fairbanks, and the Alaska Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys, has maintained seismic monitoring networks at potentially active volcanoes in Alaska since 1988 (Power and others, 1993; Jolly and others, 1996; Jolly and others, 2001). The primary objectives of this program are the seismic surveillance of active, potentially hazardous, Alaskan volcanoes and the investigation of seismic processes associated with active volcanism. This catalog reflects the status and evolution of the seismic monitoring program, and presents the basic seismic data for the time period January 1, 2000, through December 31, 2001."

Dixon, J. P., Stihler, S. D., Power, J. A., Tytgat, Guy, Estes, Steve, Moran, S. C., Paskievitch, John, and McNutt, S. R., 2002, Catalog of earthquake hypocenters at Alaskan volcanoes: January 1, 2000 through December 31, 2001: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report OF 02-0342, 56 p.
webpage with links to PDFs, data tar file, ASCII text
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"On the afternoon of June 6, 1912, a volcanic eruption cloud rose 100,000 ft (32 km) into the sky above the Katmai region, 280 miles (450 km) southwest of Anchorage on the Alaska Peninsula (Fig. 1). Explosions were even heard in Cordova, over 370 miles (600 km) away from the Alaska Peninsula. Winds pushed the ash cloud east and within a few hours, ash from a huge volcanic eruption began to fall on Kodiak Island, approximately 100 miles (170 km) southeast of the volcano."

Adleman, Jennifer, 2002, The great eruption of 1912: National Park Service Alaska Park Science Winter 2002, Anchorage, AK, http://www.nps.gov/akso/AKScience2002.pdf, p. 4-11.
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"New analytical and experimental data constrain the storage and equilibration conditions of the magmas erupted in 1912 from Novarupta in the 20th century's largest volcanic event. Phase relations at H2O+CO2 fluid saturation were determined for an andesite (58.7 wt% SiO2) and a dacite (67.7 wt%) from the compositional extremes of intermediate magmas erupted. The phase assemblages, matrix melt composition and modes of natural andesite were reproduced experimentally under H2O-saturated conditions (i.e., PH2O=PTOT) in a negatively sloping region in T-P space ..."

Hammer, J. E., Rutherford, M. J., and Hildreth, Wes, 2002, Magma storage prior to the 1912 eruption at Novarupta, Alaska: Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, v. 144, n. 2, p. 144-162.

Schaefer, Janet, and Nye, C. J., 2002, Historically active volcanoes of the Aleutian Arc: Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys Miscellaneous Publication MP 0123, unpaged, 1 sheet, scale 1:3,000,000.
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At three sample sites where there are good exposures of the upper 15 m of the 1912 ash-flow sheet in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes (VTTS), Alaska, 18O/16O studies indicate that fumarolic activity produced a very wide range of &#948;18O values (-0.1 to +12.6; n=32) in the groundmass adjacent to fossil fissure fumaroles. This contrasts sharply with the uniformity of &#948;18O in the groundmass away from fumarolic conduits (&#948;18O=+5.9 to +7.1; n=7) and in all of the feldspar phenocrysts (&#948;18O=+6.11 to +7.51 for 11 samples from this study and Hildreth 1987), independent of whether these were collected from fossil fumaroles or from unaltered tuff.

Warner, E. H., and Taylor, H. P. Jr., 2001, 18O/16O studies of fossil fissure fumaroles from the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, Alaska: Bulletin of Volcanology, v. 63, n. 2, p. 151-163.

"The Katmai cluster is a 25-kilometer-long line of volcanoes along the Alaska Peninsula 450 kilometers southwest of Anchorage, including (from northeast to southwest) Snowy Mountain, Mount Griggs, Mount Katmai, Trident Volcano, Novarupta volcano, Mount Mageik, Mount Martin, and Alagogshak volcano. All but Alagogshak have erupted within the last 6,000 years, often explosively, to produce lava flows, domes, and widespread tephra (ash) deposits. No fewer than 15 eruptive episodes have originated from the Katmai cluster in postglacial time (within the last 10,000 years), each lasting days to tens of years and all of which could have produced ash clouds. Novarupta, a new vent in 1912, produced the world's largest eruption of the 20th century and sent ash around the globe. During that great eruption, nearby Mount Katmai collapsed, destroying its summit peaks and leaving behind a 2.5-kilometer-wide caldera, now filled with a 250-meter-deep lake. More recently, a new vent on Trident produced lava flows and ash plumes for at least 20 years, lasting from 1953 to 1974. Postglacial eruptions, vigorous fumaroles on Griggs, Trident, Mageik, and Martin, and continuing seismicity are good evidence of the potentially active state of the entire Katmai cluster. Any eruption of these volcanoes could affect air traffic, both overhead and on the ground, with severity of the ash-cloud hazard depending on the size of the eruption. An explosive eruption like that of Novarupta, 1912, could affect air traffic all over the North Pacific, Alaska, Canada, and the conterminous United States. Such an eruption might interrupt and inconvenience national and international commerce, perhaps for months, but Alaskan commerce would be temporarily devastated."

Fierstein, Judy, and Hildreth, Wes, 2001, Preliminary volcano-hazard assessment for the Katmai volcanic cluster, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report OF 00-0489, 50 p., 1 plate, scale not applicable.
full-text PDF : 28.8 MB

"The Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO), a cooperative program of the U.S. Geological Survey, the Geophysical Institute of the University of Alaska - Fairbanks, and the Alaska Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys, has maintained a seismic monitoring program at potentially active volcanoes in Alaska since 1988 (Power and others, 1993; Jolly and others, 1996). The primary objectives of this program are the seismic surveillance of active, potentially hazardous, Alaskan volcanoes and the investigation of seismic processes associated with active volcanism."

Jolly, A. D., Stihler, S. D., Power, J. A., Lahr, J. C., Paskievitch, John, Tytgat, Guy, Estes, Steve, Lockheart, A. D., Moran, S. C., McNutt, S. R., and Hammond, W. R., 2001, Catalog of earthquake hypocenters at Alaskan volcanoes: January 1, 1994 through December 31, 1999: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report OF 01-0189, 22 p.
website with links to PDFs, tar file
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appendix B PDF : 2 MB
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"More than 40 active volcanoes occur in Alaska. This report summarizes historical data on those volcanoes, using information drawn from the more thorough and comprehensive U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Open-File Report 98-582, Catalog of the Historically Active Volcanoes of Alaska."

Wallace, K. L., McGimsey, R. G., and Miller, T. P., 2000, Historically active volcanoes in Alaska, a quick reference: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet FS 0118-00, 2 p.
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Seismology is an important and effective tool for monitoring volcanoes and forecasting eruptions. In the past 2 decades there have been over 25 successful forecasts.

Sigurdsson, Haraldur, (ed.), 2000, Encyclopedia of volcanoes: San Diego, CA, Academic Press, 1417 p.

Alaska Volcano Observatory, 2000, January-February 2000: Alaska Volcano Observatory Bimonthly Report, v. 12, n. 1, 28 p.
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"Volcanic ash clouds pose a real threat to aircraft safety. The ash is abrasive and capable of causing serious damage to aircraft engines, control surfaces, windshields, and landing lights. In addition, ash can clog the pitot-static systems, which determine wind speed and altitude, and damage sensors used to fly the aircraft. To ensure aviation safety, a warning system should be capable of a 5-min response time once an eruption has been detected. Pilots are the last link in the chain of safety actions to avoid or mitigate encounters with volcanic ash. For the pilots to be effective, the warning and safety system must meet their needs."

Hufford, G.L., Salinas, L.J., Simpson, J.J., Barske, E.G., and Pieri, D.C., 2000, Operational implications of airborne volcanic ash: Bulletin of the American Meterological Society, v. 81, n. 4, p. 745-755.

"Few natural forces are as spectacular and threatening, or have played such a dominant role in shaping the face of the Earth, as erupting volcanoes. Volcanism has built some of the world's greatest mountain ranges, covered vast regions with lava (molten rock at the Earth's surface), and triggered explosive eruptions whose size and power are nearly impossible for us to imagine today. Fortunately, such calamitous eruptions occur infrequently. Of the 50 or so volcanoes that erupt every year, however, a few severely disrupt human activities. Between 1980 and 1990, volcanic activity killed at least 26,000 people and forced nearly 450,000 to flee from their homes."

Brantley, S. R., 1999, Volcanoes of the United States: U.S. Geological Survey General Interest Publication 44 p.
website with links to HTML full-text
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Alaska Volcano Observatory, 1999, September-December 1999: Alaska Volcano Observatory Bimonthly Report, v. 11, n. 5 and 6, 51 p.
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"The feasibility of measureing volcanic deformation or monitoring deformation of active volcanoes using space-borne synthetic aperture radar (SAR) interferometry depends on the ability to maintain phase coherence over appropriate time intervals."

Lu, Z., and Freymueller, J. T., 1998, Synthetic aperture radar interferometry coherence analysis over Katmai volcano group, Alaska: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 103, n. B12, p. 29,887-29,894.

Nye, C. J., Queen, Katherine, and McCarthy, A. M., 1998, Volcanoes of Alaska: Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys Information Circular IC 0038, unpaged, 1 sheet, scale 1:4,000,000, available at http://www.dggs.dnr.state.ak.us/pubs/pubs?reqtype=citation&ID=7043 .
website with links to sheets in MrSID format

"The largest eruption on Earth this century occurred at Novarupta Volcano, Alaska, in June 1912, creating Katmai Caldera and the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. Volcanic ash (more than from all other historical eruptions in Alaska combined) devastated areas hundreds of miles away. Such massive eruptions will occur again in southern Alaska, threatening its rapidly growing population. To protect the public, U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and other scientists with the Alaska Volcano Observatory closely monitor the State's many active volcanoes."

Fierstein, Judy, Hildreth, Wes, Hendley, J. W. II., and Stauffer, P. H., 1998, Can another great volcanic eruption happen in Alaska?: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet FS 0075-98, 2 p.
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Alaska hosts within its borders over 80 major volcanic centers that have erupted during Holocene time (<10,000 years). At least 29 of these volcanic centers (table 1) had historical eruptions and 12 additional volcanic centers may have had historical eruptions. Historical in Alaska generally means the period since 1760 when explorers, travelers, and inhabitants kept written records. These 41 volcanic centers have been the source for >265 eruptions reported from Alaska volcanoes.

Miller, T. P., McGimsey, R. G., Richter, D. H., Riehle, J. R., Nye, C. J., Yount, M. E., and Dumoulin, J. A., 1998, Catalog of the historically active volcanoes of Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report OF 98-0582, 104 p.
website with PDF links
title page PDF : 52
intro and TOC PDF : 268 KB
eastern part - Wrangell to Ukinrek Maars PDF : 972 KB
central part - Chiginagak to Cleveland PDF : 2,463 KB
western part - Carlisle to Kiska PDF : 956 KB
references PDF : 43 KB

Alaska Volcano Observatory, 1998, January-April 1998: Alaska Volcano Observatory Bimonthly Report, v. 10, n. 1 and 2, 35 p.
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"Novarupta dome, located at the head of the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes in Katmai National Park, Alaska (fig. I), is the site of the largest volcanic eruption worldwide this century. During the 1912 eruption, approximately Figure 1. The braced quadrilateral geodetic network in the Novarupta area of the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. Benchmark locations are indicated by triangles and abbreviated names used in the text. 15 km3 of compositionally mingled magma (Hildreth, 1983) erupted from the Novarupta vent area, which collapsed to form a 2-km-wide depression. The summit of nearby Mt. Katmai synchronously collapsed, presumably a result of a complex connection with the venting magma system (Hildreth, 1983, 1987). The eruptive sequence ended with the extrusion of the Novarupta rhyolite dome within the vent depression."

Kleinman, J. W., Iwatsubo, E. Y., Power, J. A., and Endo, E. T., 1997, Geodetic studies in the Novarupta area, Katmai National Park, Alaska, 1990 to 1995: in Dumoulin, J. A. and Gray, J. E., (eds.), Geologic studies in Alaska by the U.S. Geological Survey, 1995, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper PP 1574, p. 83-92.
HTML website with links to full-text PDF
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"Few natural forces are as spectacular and threatening, or have played such a dominant role in shaping the face of the Earth, as erupting volcanoes. Volcanism has built some of the world's greatest mountain ranges, covered vast regions with lava (molten rock at the Earth's surface), and triggered explosive eruptions whose size and power are nearly impossible for us to imagine today. Fortunately, such calamitous eruptions occur infrequently. Of the 50 or so volcanoes that erupt every year, however, a few severely disrupt human activities. Between 1980 and 1990, volcanic activity killed at least 26,000 people and forced nearly 450,000 to flee from their homes."

Brantley, S. R., 1997, Volcanoes of the United States: The Earth Scientist, v. 14, n. 4, p. 3-13.
website with links to HTML chapters

"Low-sulfide, gold-quartz veins are common throughout the medium-grade metamorphic terranes of Alaska and historically have been the most widely developed deposit type in the state. Previous studies in Alaska focus on the environmental effects resulting from relatively small-scale mining of some of these vein systems on and near U.S. Forest Service and Park Service lands (Cieutat and others, 1994; Trainor and others, 1996). Data from these small deposits indicate minimal environmental impact as a result of acid mine drainage, although surface waters may be locally enriched in arsenic and iron. The purpose of this study is to evaluate how the development of much larger, low-sulfide, gold-quartz vein deposits may have impacted local surface-water quality."

Dumoulin, J. A., and Gray, J. E., (eds.), 1997, Geologic studies in Alaska by the U.S. Geological Survey, 1995: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper PP 1574, 328 p.
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"Alaska is home to more than 40 active volcanoes, many of which have erupted violently and repeatedly in the last 200 years. This compact disc (CD-ROM) contains 97 digital images created from 35-mm slides scanned by a Kodak PIW film scanner. These pictures are but a small fraction of thousands taken by Alaska Volcano Observatory scientists, other researchers, and private citizens. Photographs were selected for inclusion in this collection to portray Alaska's volcanoes, to document recent eruptive activity, and to illustrate the range of volcanic phenomena observed in Alaska."

Neal, Christina, and McGimsey, R. G., 1997, Volcanoes of the Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands selected photographs: U.S. Geological Survey Digital Data Series DDS 0040, 1 CD-ROM.
website with links to HTML album, PDF, and individual images in a variety of formats
directory of high-resolution images (PCD format)
web browser photo album
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directory of PDF slideshow files
directory of small screen images (JPG)
directory of large screen images (JPG)
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"The Alaska Peninsula is a 775-km-long southwestward extension of mainland Alaska (fig. 1). The peninsula is about 225 km wide at the northeast end and narrows to less than 10 km near the southwest end. The southeast side is bordered by rugged mountains that rise sharply out of the Pacific Ocean. Many large bays and fiords cut the southeast shoreline. The northwest side, bordering Bristol Bay, is level and rarely more than 100 m above sea level; the coastline is nearly smooth and is broken by only a few large bays. At least 37 principal volcanic centers dot the length of the peninsula, and at least 30 have erupted during the Holocene (Miller and Richter, 1994). The present Aleutian volcanic arc overlies an early Mesozoic magmatic arc and a middle Tertiary volcanic arc."

Detterman, R. L., Case, J. E., Miller, J. W., Wilson, F. H., and Yount, M. E., 1996, Stratigraphic framework of the Alaska Peninsula: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 1969-A, 74 p.
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Church, S. E., Riehle, J. R., and Goldfarb, R. J., 1994, Interpretation of exploration geochemical data for the Mount Katmai quadrangle and adjacent parts of the Afognak and Naknek quadrangles, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 2020, 67 p., 3 plates, scale 1:250,000.
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"There is a range of styles of explosive volcanic eruption that can produce large convecting ash clouds and thereby inject ash high into the atmosphere. Ash can rise high into the atmosphere if the hot, erupted material can mix with and heat up a sufficient mass of air so that the bulk density of the mixture decreases below the ambient (Self and Walker, this volume). The typical ascent time of this ash to its maximum height is on the order of a few minutes; if this time is longer than the time over which the material is erupted and becomes buoyant, then the cloud will rise as a discrete volcanic thermal cloud (Wilson and others, 1978; Woods and Kienle, in press)."

Woods, A. W., and Kienle, Juergen, 1994, The injection of volcanic ash into the atmosphere: in Casadevall, T. J., (ed.), Volcanic ash and aviation safety: proceedings of the first international symposium on volcanic ash and aviation safety, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 2047, p. 101-106.
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"Volcanic ash is a widespread product of eruptions of volcanoes that are located around rim of the Pacific Ocean. Ash is formed by explosive fragmentation and quenching of magma (crystals +melt + gas) during an eruption. Melt in the magma is quenched to a glass when the temperature is rapidly lowered upon exposure to atmospheric conditions. The explosive character of these volcanoes is caused by the silica-rich melt, which often contains dissolved volatile components, such as H20 or SO2. Crystallization of mineral phases (e.g., plagioclase, pyroxene, hornblende, Fe-Ti oxides, etc.) gradually enriches non-crystallizing components in the melt."

Swanson, S. E., and Beget, J. E., 1994, Melting properties of volcanic ash: in Casadevall, T. J., (ed.), Volcanic ash and aviation safety: proceedings of the First international symposium on Volcanic ash and aviation safety, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 2047, p. 87-92.
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Volcanic ash layers preserved in glacial-lacustrine sediments at Skilak Lake on the Kenai Peninsula of southcentral Alaska constitute a record of eruptions at Redoubt Volcano and other Alaskan volcanoes which affected the upper Cook Inlet area during the last 500 years. High-resolution magnetic susceptibility profiling delineates similar sequences of tephra layers in several 1-m-long lake sediment cores. Electron microprobe analyses of glass shards from the tephras indicate correlation of some ash layers with known reference tephras from the source volcanoes, while other ash layers record previously unknown prehistoric eruptions. Skilak Lake cores contain ash from the historic 1912 Katmai eruption, the 1902 Redoubt eruption, and the 1883 Mount St. Augustine eruption as well as prehistoric ash layers erupted from Crater Peak at Mr. Spurr ca. 250-350 years ago, from Redoubt Volcano at ca. 300-400 years ago and again at ca. 350-450 years ago, and a 500-year-old ash from Mount St. Augustine.

Beget, J. E., Stihler, S. D., and Stone, D. B., 1994, A 500-year-long record of tephra falls from Redoubt volcano and other volcanoes in upper Cook Inlet, Alaska: in Miller, T. P. and Chouet, B. A., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1-4, p. 55-67.

"Quaternary Aleutian volcanism extends for over 2,500 km, from Buldir Island on the west to Mount Hayes on the east (fig. 1). This belt of volcanic activity lies immediately north of the Aleutian trench, a convergent boundary between the North American and Pacific lithospheric plates."

Motyka, R. J., Liss, S. A., Nye, C. J., and Moorman, M. A., 1993, Geothermal resources of the Aleutian Arc: Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys Professional Report PR 0114, 17 p., 4 sheets, scale 1:1,000,000.
website with links to PDF and MrSID files

"This study was undertaken to develop a Quaternary history of the Katmai area using deposits preserved near Windy Creek. Detailed mapping and tephrochronology were used to accomplish this goal. Ukak drift (ca. 11,000 yr B.P.) forms moraines in the lower Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. Katolinat drift (ca. 9,000 yr B.P.) records a less extensive glaciation."

Pinney, D. S., 1993, Late Quaternary glacial and volcanic stratigraphy near Windy Creek, Katmai National Park, Alaska: University of Alaska Fairbanks unpublished M.S. thesis, 185 p.
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Neal, C.A., and Power, J. (compilers), 1990, Alaska Volcano Observatory fall report: October 1, 1990 - December 31, 1990: Alaska Volcano Observatory bimonthly report series, 8 p.

Hildreth, Wes, and Fierstein, Judy, 1987, Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, Katmai National Park, Alaska: in Cordilleran Section of the Geological Society of America, Geological Society of America Centennial Field Guide 0006, v. 1, p. 425-432.
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On June 6-8, 1912, ~15km3 of magma erupted from the Novarupta caldera at the head of the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes (VTTS), producing ~20km3 of air-fall tephra and 11-15km3 of ash-flow tuff within ~60 hours.

Hildreth, Wes, 1983, The compositionally zoned eruption of 1912 in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, Katmai National Park, Alaska: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 18, n. 1-4, p. 1-56.

Volcanism and tectonism in the eastern Aleutian arc are controlled by the subduction of the Pacific plate beneath the North American plate. Worldwide earthquake data and data from local seismic networks in Cook Inlet, on the Alaska Peninsula and on Kodiak Island have defined the arcuate plate boundary and the Wadati-Benioff zone. A calc-alkaline volcanic arc of approximately 20 volcanic centers is well developed above the subduction zone.

Kienle, J., Swanson, S. E., and Pulpan, H., 1983, Magmatism and subduction in the eastern Aleutian Arc: in Shimozuru, D. and Yokoyama, I., (eds.), Arc volcanism: physics and tectonics, IAVCEI symposium, Proceedings, Tokyo and Hakone, Japan, Aug. 3l -Sept. 5, 1981, Tokyo, Terra Scientific Publishing Co., p. 191-224.

Calc-alkaline volcanism and oceanic plate subduction are intimately linked in the eastern Aleutian arc. The volcanic arc is segmented: larger caldera-forming volcanic centers tend to be located near segment boundaries. Intrasegment volcanoes form smaller stratocones. Ten of the 22 volcanoes that make up the 540 km long volcanic front in the eastern Aleutian arc have erupted in recorded history and another six show hydrothermal activity.

Kienle, Juergen, and Swanson, S. E., 1983, Volcanism in the eastern Aleutian Arc: late Quaternary and Holocene centers, tectonic setting and petrology: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 17, n. 1-4, p. 393-432.

"The National Geographic Society's first grant to Robert F. Griggs in 1915 and the second in 1916 where made particularly to study the return of plant life in an area buried depp under sterile volcanic ash from the great eruption of June 1912 in the Katmai region of Alaska."

Higbie, R. G., 1975, The Katmai eruption and the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes: in 1890-1954 projects, National Geographic Society Research Report 0008, p. 141-170.

Pewe, T. L., 1975, Quaternary geology of Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper PP 0835, 145 p., 3 sheets, scale 1:5,000,000.
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plate 1 PDF : 2.3 MB
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"But why there? asked my wife, Nancy when I first broached the subject of a hiking trip into the Valley of 10,000 Smokes. Why there, indeed. To many, the remote Katmai National Monument might seem a harsh lifeless land, full of smoldering desolation and volcanic devestation."

Ryder, K., 1964, On foot in the valley of fire and ice: Alaska Sportsman, v. 30, n. 9, p. 24-26.

"In October 1945, the War Department (now Department of the Army) requested the Geological Survey to undertake a program of volcano investigations in the Aleutian Islands and Alaska Peninsula area. The first field studies were made during the years 1946-48. The results of the first year's field, laboratory, and library work were hastily assembled as two administrative reports, and most of these data have been revised for publication in Geological Survey Bulletin 1028. Part of the early work was published in 1950 in Bulletin 974-B, "Volcanic Activity in the Aleutian Arc," and in 1951 in Bulletin 989-A, "Geology of Buldir Island, Aleutian Islands, Alaska," both by Robert R. Coats. Additionl fieldwork was done during the years 1949-54. Unpublished results of the early work and all the later studies are being incoporated as parts of Bulletin 1028. The investigations of 1946 were supported almost entirely by the Office, Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army. From 1947-55 the Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force joined to furnish financial and logistic assistance. The Geological Survey is indebted to the Office, Chief of Engineers, for its early recognition of the value of geologic studies in the Aleutian region, and to the several military departments for their support."

Wilcox, R. E., 1959, Some effects of recent volcanic ash falls with special reference to Alaska: in Investigations of Alaskan volcanoes, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 1028-N, p. 409-476, 5 sheets, scale unknown.
full-text PDF : 1.5 MB
plate 54 PDF : 76 KB
plate 55 PDF : 194 KB
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plate 58 PDF : 140 KB

Keller, A. S., and Reiser, H. N., 1959, Geology of the Mount Katmai area, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 1058-G, p. 261-298, 2 sheets, scale 1:250,000.
full-text PDF : 4 MB
plate 29 PDF : 32 MB
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"The Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands form one of the conspicuously arcuate lines of volcanoes that border the Pacific Ocean. The name Aleutian Range is applied to this 1,600 mile long, narrow belt of peaks reaching from Mount Spurr opposite Anchorage to the island of Attu, close to the continent of Asia."

Powers, H. A., 1958, Alaska Peninsula-Aleutian Islands: in Williams, H., (ed.), Landscapes of Alaska, Los Angeles, CA, University of California Press, p. 61-75.

"Recent studies have cast much doubt on Fenner's interpretation of the 1912 eruptions in the Katmai region. There is no evidence that a sill of rhyolitic magma was injected under the floor of the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokeds. The glowing avalanches that swept down the valley issued mainly from swarms of vertical fissures near the head of the valley."

Williams, Howel, Curtis, G. H., and Juhle, R. W., 1956, Mount Katmai and the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, Alaska (a new interpretation of the great eruptions of 1912) [abs.]: in Pacific Science Congress, 8, Proceedings, v. 2, p. 129.

"Observation of the volcanoes of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, while still incomplete, is more comprehensive than in previous history because of the continuing volume of air travel in the region."

Powers, H. A., 1954, Activity of Alaskan volcanoes, 1949-1953 [abs.]: in Pacific Science Congress, 8, Proceedings, Philippines, 1953, p. 12-14.

"Mount Trident, in Mount Katmai National Monument, erupted on February 15, 1953. Mount Trident is located near the base of the Alaska Peninsula, 110 miles northwest of Kodiak and 5 miles west-southwest of Katmai Volcano, which erupted violently in 1912. There is no previous record of activity of Trident Volcano during historic times."

MacDonald, G. A., 1953, Eruption of Trident Volcano, Alaska: The Volcano Letter, v. 519, p. 7.
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Trident Volcano, in Alaska, continues in mild activity. The lava flow issuing about a mile southwest of the old crater of Trident continued to grow slowly until June 2. George Snyder, geologist of the U.S. Geological Survey, reports that between June 2 and June 17 the rate of growth of the flow increased markedly.

MacDonald, G. A., 1953, Activity of Trident Volcano: The Volcano Letter, v. 520, p. 5-6.
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"Probablyl the most convincing proof of the processes at work in the magma is provided by the analyses of the pumices. In preparation for analyses, if the field sample consisted largely of lumps of pumice, many lumps were picked out and ground to fine powder."

Fenner, C. N., 1950, The chemical kinetics of the Katmai eruption, part I-II: American Journal of Science, v. 248, n. 9, p. 593-627, 697-725, 4 plates, scale unknown.

"On June 7, 1912, the people in Seward heard a series of explosions that sounded like heavy blasting. High overhead, a tremendous mist-like cloud formed, blotting out the brightness of the sun and turning it copper colored. For the following three days, the cloud hung over the city, gradually settling closer to the earth, and the buildings, yards and streets were covered with a fine coating of ash."

Horner, M. A., and Brain, Gladys, 1947, First into Katmai: Alaska Life, v. 10, n. 1, p. 6-7, 24-26.

"The Aleutian volcanic belt begins on the east at the head of Cook Inlet, in southern Alaska, and extends westward through the Alaskan peninsula and the Aleutian Islands. This is a narrow belt nearly 1,600 miles long."

Coleman, S. N., 1946, Alaska and the Aleutian belt: chapter 16 of Volcanoes, New and Old, New York, The John Day Company, p. 155-165.

"The explosion of Katmai Volcano in Alaska in June 1912 is ranked among the twelve greatest historic eruptions of the world. It is easy to see the justification of giving this rank when it is shown that as a result of this eruption, a town a hundred miles away was buried under a foot of ashes; that so loud were the concussions that the comments of people at a distance of 750 miles were excited; and that the quantity of dust thrown into the upper atmospher was such that the intensity of the sunlight was diminshed for many months throughout the northern hemisphere."

Okimura, H., 1930, The eruption of Katmai, Alaska, 1912: The Volcano Letter, v. 305, p. 1-3.
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"In the course of two seasons of field work in the Katmai region, in 1919 and 1923, a considerable collection was made of the various igneous rocks occurring there. The principal object in visiting the region was a study of the phenomena of the great eruption if 1912, and it was not possible, in the limited time available, to make a thorough investigation of former igneous activity."

Fenner, C. N., 1926, The Katmai magmatic province: Journal of Geology, v. 34, n. 7, p. 673-772.

"In 1919 Allen and Zies of the Geophysical Laboratory studied the fumaroles at Katmai Volcano, Alaskan Peninsula. (See Volcano Letter, No. 5; Technical Papers, National Geographic Society, No. 2, 1923, A chemical study of the fumaroles of the Katmai region, by E.T. Allen and E.G. Zies). These gas craters at very high temperatures were mostly in the "sand-flow" of the eruption of 1912, and the following conclusions were reached:--"

Jaggar, T. A., 1926, The gas vents of the Katmai eruption: The Volcano Letter, v. 62, p. 1.
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"World-shaking earthquakes are well known. Sudden release of stress occurs somewhere in the earth, and a big earthquake is registered on seismographs thousands of miles away. It is commonly thought volcanoes have little to do with it. Many big earthquakes happen under deep oceans for the centers can be located by the seismographs. Of lava outpourings under the deep sea we know nothing; they may very possibly occur."

Jaggar, T. A., 1925, A volcanic outbreak that shook the globe: The Volcano Letter, v. 5, p. 1.
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"The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes was discovered by R.F. Griggs in 1916. His reports indicated such unusual fumarolic activity that several expeditions were sent to the region by the National Geographic Society under the leadership of Professor Griggs in order to study the geological and chemical features of this phase of volcanism."

Zies, E. G., 1924, The fumarolic incrustations in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes: National Geographic Society Contributed Technical Papers, Katmai Series 0003, p. 157-179.

Smith, W. R., and Baker, A. A., 1924, The Cold Bay-Chignik District, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 0755-D, p. 151-222, 5 plates, scale 4 at 1:250,000 and 1 unknown.
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Of the work done by the last expedition (1919) Dr. Escher has seen only the popular account in the National Geographic Magazine, September, 1921, Volc. 40 pp. 219--292. This account, written for the 725,000 members of the National Geographic Society, was manifestly no the proper place for a technical presentation of the detailed data which the geologist requires as the basis for his conclusions.

Griggs, R. F., 1923, Observations on the incandescent sand flow of the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes: Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam, Proceedings Ser. Science, v. 25, p. 42-50.

The following pages tell the story of the discovery by the National Geographic Society expeditions of one of the wonders of the world, "The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes," and the prolonged study of one of the most gigantic volcanic eruptions in history.

Griggs, R. F., 1922, The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes: Washington, DC, National Geographic Society, 340 p., 3 sheets, scale unknown.

"After numerous expeditions to the Mt. Katmai volcano and the 'Valley of ten thousand smokes' in Alaska, Robert F. Griggs has amply communicated his observations (lit. 1--6)."

Escher, B. G., 1922, On the hot "lahar" (mud flow) of the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, Alaska: in Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, 24, Proceedings, Science Section, p. 282-293.

"From the first accounts of the explosion of Katmai Volcano, in Alaska, in June, 1912, it was clear that it must rank among the dozen greatest historic eruptions. Nevertheless, these early narratives contained no accounts of the events of the eruption itself, but were confined to the description of its effects at great distances."

Griggs, R. F., 1921, Our greatest national monument: The National Geographic Society completes its explorations in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes: National Geographic Magazine, v. 40, n. 3, p. 219-292.

"The great volcanic explosion of June, 1912, in Southwestern Alaska which blew out the Katmai crater to a depth of over 3,700 feet, distributing more than two cubic miles of ash and pumice over the surrounding country, left on the Behring Sea slope of the Aleutian Peninsula in the Valley of 10,000 Smokes an excellent opportunity for studying the chemical nature of the gaseous emanations characteristic of the eruption."

Shipley, J. W., 1920, Some chemical observations on the volcanic emanations and incrustations in the Valley of 10,000 Smokes, Katmai, Alaska: American Journal of Science, v. 50, p. 141-153.

"The fumarole activity following and continuing after the great Katmai eruption of June, 1912, has provided south-western Alaska with the first among the natural wonders of the world."

Shipley, J. W., 1920, The nature of the Katmai volcanic gasses and encrustations: Nature, v. 104, p. 595-597.

"In the original account of the discovery and exploration of the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes in the National Geographic Magazine, February, 1918, I felt free to describe the phenomena in the light of our conclusions regarding them, although I could not, at that time, digress to give the data upon which our conclusions where based."

Griggs, R. F., 1919, Are the Ten Thousand Smokes real volcanoes?: in Scientific Results of the Katmai Expedition of the National Geographic Society Paper, The Ohio Journal of Science, v. 19, p. 97-116.

"Certain samples of Katmai volcanic ash collected by Dr. R.F. Griggs in 1916 were found by him not to support the growth of plants, but on the contrary apparently to have a toxic effect upon germinated seedlings."

Shipley, J. W., 1919, The water soluble salt content, the ferrous iron content and the acidity of Katmai volcanic ash: in Scientific Results of the Katmai Expedition of the National Geographic Society, The Ohio Journal of Science, v. 19, p. 224-229.

"The most serious failure of the expedition of 1917 was its inability to measure the temperatures of the volcanoes in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. The Smokes were so much hotter than had been anticipated that the expedition found itself without the apparatus necessary for their measurement."

Sayre, J. D., and Hagelbarger, P. R., 1919, A study of temperatures in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes: in Scientific Results of the Katmai Expedition of the National Geographic Society Paper, The Ohio Journal of Science, v. 19, p. 249-278.

"As we explored the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, the first thing that attracted our attention, when we could look beyond the smokes themselves, was a curious line that encircled the Valley almost like the high water mark of a flood."

Griggs, R. F., 1919, The great hot mud flow of the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes (Katmai, Alaska): in Scientific Results of the Katmai Expedition of the National Geographic Society Paper III, The Ohio Journal of Science, v. 19, p. 117-142.

"Under the caption 'The Katmai National Monument' in the issue of Science, January 3, several observations and comparisons are made realtive to this wonderful natrual phenomenon."

Shipley, J. W., 1919, The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes: Fort Hays Studies New Series, Science Series 0049, p. 589-591.

"Rock strata superheated since the great eruption underlie Katmai near enough to the surface to turn to instant steam the spring and drainage water of many a surrounding mile of foot hills."

Shipley, J. W., 1919, Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes: Science, v. 49, n. 1277, p. 489-491.

"When the members of the Katmai Expedition of the National Geographic Society, looking through Katmai Pass, first beheld below them the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, it was at once evident that one of the great wonders of the world had been discovered."

Griggs, R. F., 1918, The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes: an account of the discovery and exploration of the most wonderful volcanic region in the world: National Geographic Magazine, v. 33, n. 2, p. 115-169.

"The next day, July 31, dawned as clear and bright as the former; but the cloud from Mageik this time drifted off to the northwest, and small clouds were beginning to gather on the west side of the valley, so that I knew it was to be the last day of good weather."

Griggs, R. F., 1917, The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes: National Geographic Society explorations in the Katmai district of Alaska: National Geographic Magazine, v. 31, n. 1, p. 13-68.

"The series of overlapping yearly means of temperature, expressed graphically, show most characteristic crests and depressions. In the case of tropical stations, in particular, the crests of the curves are very regular and recur at intervals of two to three years, practically at the same time all around the world."

Arctowski, Henryk, 1915, Volcanic dust veils and climatic variations: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, v. 26, p. 149-174.

"On reaching my house after the April Meeting of the Royal Meteorological Society at which the Phenological Report was presented, the February National Geographic Magazine was awaiting me, and in it 68 pp. on the Alaskan earth-quake to which had been attributed the exceptional weather after mid-July."

Clark, J. E., 1913, Effect upon atmospheric transparency of the Alaskan eruption: Royal Meteorological Society, Quarterly Journal, v. 39, p. 219-220.

"The volcanic eruption of Mount Katmai, Alaska, of June, 1912, was undoubtedly one of the most violent eruptions of historic times. This volcano was one of the least known of the many Alaskan volcanic peaks, and had been so long dormant that there were apparently not even local legends of its former outbreaks."

Martin, G. C., 1913, The recent eruption of Katmai Volcano in Alaska: an account of one of the most tremendous volcanic explosions known in history: National Geographic Magazine, v. 24, p. 131-181.

"During the first week in June Katmai Volcano, in southwestern Alaska, which had been generally believed to be an extinct volcano, unexpectedly burst into violent eruption and continued active for three days. Vast quantities of dust, pumice, and stones were ejected aloft."

Unknown, 1912, Volcanoes of Alaska: National Geographic Magazine, v. 23, p. 824-832.